Essentialism:
Essentialists believe that students must master a “common core” of information and skills, and that the purpose of school is to transmit the material that makes up this “core” as effectively as possible, mainly through teacher-centered instruction and the hard work and mental discipline of the students. Specific teaching methods include use of formal discipline, assigning required reading, and lecturing. The content of essentialism is heavily focused on literature, history, foreign languages, and religion. Students are expected to memorize content to the point of repetition and further demonstrate mastery through testing. To essentialists, truth is discovered through observable facts. This theory stems from the philosophies of realism and idealism.
Perennialism:
Perennialists believe that students should be taught subjects that have been determined to be of universal and everlasting importance to all people, as perennialism deems that all human beings possess the same essential nature. Students learn about their “humanity” by reading and analyzing works produced by history’s “finest” thinkers and writers and are taught to reason through structured lessons and drills with an emphasis on principles, not facts. In perennialism, there is a focus on personal development through the understanding of such principles.
Behaviorism:
Behaviorists believe that the environment in which one exists determines their behavior rather than their heredity. Because of its focus on the careful studying of the environment, behaviors, and responses, behaviorism is closely related to the educational philosophy of realism. The teacher’s role is to carefully control the stimuli within the classroom as a way to influence student behavior; the ideal classrooms are deemed to be highly organized and efficient with a curriculum that is based on behavioral objectives. Within such classrooms, teachers use both positive and negative reinforcers often, abiding by the theory that behavior that is not reinforced (good or bad) will eventually discontinue. Essentially, students are encouraged to attain self-control, resist temptation, and show concern for others.
Positivism:
Positivism originated from social scientist August Comte’s concept of “positive knowledge” and the “positive period” in which thinkers did not attempt to go beyond observable, measureable fact. Likewise, positivism rejects intuition and the “inner causes” that cannot be measured and limits knowledge to statements or observable fact based on sense perceptions and the “investigation of objective reality.” Because positivism is highly focused on observable fact and logic, student engagement can sometimes be overlooked. The teacher’s job is to identify precisely what students ought to know and to clearly describe those objectives to the students, with an emphasis on repetition and the memorization of content. Tests are used to measure student knowledge and schools are required to develop content standards that “represent that best understanding of experts who have already uncovered important ideas based on their own observation and measurement” (110).
Reconstructionism:
Reconstructionism addresses social questions with the goal of creating an improved society. Social reform becomes the aim of education with a focus on critical consciousness and awareness to overcome societal repression. Emphasis is placed on student experience and their ability to take action on real problems. Teaching and learning methods use inquiry and dialogue and incorporate multiple perspectives as well as community-based learning endeavors to give students “real-world” experiences.
Progressivism:
Progressivism stems from the educational philosophy of pragmatism. Progressivists believe that learning is derived from within the questions developed by learners, and that these ideas should be tested by experimentation (the scientific method). Progressivism allows for the beliefs of individuals rather than focusing on great ideas of the past, and students are taught to learn how to think rather than what to think. The role of the school is to prepare students for change and to help them become divergent thinkers. Curriculum focuses on interdisciplinary problems and developing student interest in intellectual activity. Classrooms are places of democracy and “organized freedom” and pupil-teaching planning (students learning from each other and contributing to the structure of the class and curriculum), and the learner is treated as an “experiencing, thinking, exploring individual.” Books are used as tools for learning rather than as “sources of indisputable knowledge.” Teachers act as “transformative intellectuals.”
Humanism:
Humanism stems from the educational philosophy of existentialism. Rosseau, an influential figure humanist theories, believed that when all humans are born, they carry within them a basic goodness and the main focus of humanism is to enhance that “innate goodness” as the individual matures. Rosseau also believed that humans are “born free but enslaved by institutions” (114). Thus, humanism rejects group-centered education systems and instead seeks ways to help each student develop as a unique individual; in other words, from a humanistic perspective, education should begin with the self and pave the way for an individual to develop a “free, self-actualizing person” (114). Due to its focus on individualism, humanism believes that students should be active participants in their education and encouraged to make their own decisions; therefore, education should not occur with any form of coercion or prescription, and teachers should refrain from giving their own personal opinions within the classroom. Instruction ought to be based on student interests, abilities, and needs so that students can draw personal meaning from the curriculum.
Constructivism:
Also closely associated with existentialism, constructivism aims to allow students to develop personal meaning. Constructivism uses hands-on, activity-based teaching and learning to help students become critical thinkers and to discover and frame their own thoughts and ideas. Teachers therefore do not spend time lecturing and instead view their students as active learners that need plenty of opportunity for curiosity and intellectual stimulus. Students partake in problem-based learning, meaning that educators are challenged to focus curriculum on a balance of student interests current social issues, making the curriculum interdisciplinary. Learning is personalized and students are drawn in by “hooks” that spark their interest and get them thinking about a specific problem or topic.
Personal Beliefs:
After reading about each of the eight theories of education, I have come to the conclusion that a combination of constructivism and humanism best reflect my personal beliefs. I do not think that I could strictly adhere to one theory or the other, however, because I believe that a meaningful, well-rounded education occurs when the individual is able to form a genuine identity and relationship with oneself (humanism) while also developing an awareness of social issues and practicing the problem-solving skills necessary for becoming an active member of a democratic society (constructivism). Essentially, I feel that the methods of humanism ought to be the foundation for education with those of constructivism building off of that foundation. I believe that an education will be most successful when the learner has the opportunity to understand him or herself and develop his or her own values and then use those values and understandings to create direction and meaning in their journey towards becoming highly-functioning and contributive members of society.
I have found that if a student lacks an understanding of him or her self, or was never given the opportunity to develop a relationship with him or herself through the freedom that allows for the discovery of passions and interests, that student will struggle to find meaning within his/her education and therefore the rest (i.e., skill development and application of knowledge) will come less naturally and with more difficulty. Thus, if passion and a sense of identity come first, the rest will follow.
That being said, as a teacher, I will take a humanistic approach when it comes to ensuring that my students have plenty of opportunities for self-discovery. I will try my best not to let my personal beliefs interfere with their learning, and instead leave room for self-directed questioning and learning as well as give my students the freedom to express their own ideas without having to worry about being judged or devalued. I will treat each student as a unique individual with the right to his/her own thoughts and identity in the hopes that this will give them the intrinsic motivation to follow through with their questions, goals, passions, etcetera. I believe that learning should be student-driven, not teacher-driven. I want to develop thinkers and questioners, and more importantly, self-satisfied and self-confident individuals who are unafraid to think and question independently.
I will then use a constructionist approach by pairing the interests of my students with relevant, real-world issues. If students are comfortable with their own beliefs and values and know to respect those of others even when they differ, then they will hopefully to get more out of collaborative work in which they work together to solve problems and think critically. I hope that my students can learn from each other in the sense that they will each have a unique perspective to bring to the table, allowing the humanistic approach to benefit that of the constructivist approach.
Lastly, I believe that it is worth mentioning that while reading of the educational theories and contemplating where my personal beliefs fit in, I was deeply reminded of two of my most admired historical figures, transcendentalists Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. Like Rosseau and his approach to humanism, Emerson and Thoreau believed in the power of the individual before anything else--including that of institutions. In my opinion, schools ought to serve as places in which students are provided ongoing opportunities to develop an individual identity and feel safe and respected while doing so. Simultaneously, schools should give students opportunities to apply their personal interests and passion to real-world situations, as this is where the power of education plays into the greater whole of society. Finally, if students do not have the chance to discover who they are as individuals, their education will be of lesser value to them and of lesser value to the rest of the world. Schools do not exist to drill facts into the valuable minds of our students; students should be able to walk away with much more than that, including an identity that will bring them comfort, fulfillment, and purpose in all of life’s journeys.
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